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The Biology and Psychology of Gender
(02/20/2007) by Blaise Parker
What is difference between sex and gender? Sex, the term used to describe the biological differences between males and females, can be determined by examining a number of different biological factors. For example, one can be categorized as one sex or the other based on chromosomal features (an XX or XY genetic pattern), gonads (presence of testes or ovaries), sex hormones (presence or absence of estrogen/testosterone), secondary sex characteristics (e.g., facial hair in men, breasts in women), or external genitalia (vulva or penis). Gender, on the other hand, refers to societal beliefs and stereotypes about the ways that men and women should behave. Gender identity describes an individual’s sense of him- or herself as a man or woman.
The earliest factors that influence gender identity happen before birth, and are largely biological in nature. During prenatal development, the embryo’s sex is determined by the presence of an XX or XY set of chromosomes. Embryos of either sex start out as female until approximately 6-8 weeks after pregnancy begins. At this point, if a Y chromosome is present it triggers the production of TDF (testes determining factor), which begins a chain reaction that causes the development of male sex organs and prevents the development of female sex organs. Without the Y chromosome’s TDF, the embryo would continue to develop into a female.
As the embryonic testes develop in the male embryo, these become a source of testosterone, and it is believed that this testosterone (converted to dihydrotestosterone) further masculinizes the embryo. The fetal brain is affected by the presence of dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and several structures (e.g., corpus callosum, cerebellum) are altered to a shape and size that is more typical in males than females. Some scientists refer to this effect on the brain as "hard-wiring." (This is also sometimes referred to as one’s "brain sex.") Thus, many researchers believe, male and female brains are organized differently as a result of prenatal hormone exposure, and fetal brains are therefore primed to favor a particular gender identity, usually the one consistent with her or his biological sex.
Biology, though, is only part of the gender riddle. We must next ask what we know about environmental factors and gender. Almost immediately after birth, the gender socialization process begins. Newborns are dressed in gender-specific clothing (for example, pink for girls or blue for boys in the United States) and research shows that boy and girl babies are treated differently. Boys are bounced more often and encouraged to be alert and active, while girls are rocked and cuddled more often. Toys and nursery decorations are often gendered as well. Because the socialization process begins so quickly after birth, it is almost impossible to explain whether boys’ and girls’ behaviors are due to biology or environment (also known as the "nature vs. nurture" debate). Of course, this has not prevented psychologists from developing a number of theories about how children learn gender.
Examples of theories that psychologists use to explain the development of gendered behaviors in children include social learning theory, cognitive developmental theory, and gender schema theory. The first of these, social learning theory, argues that children learn gender-appropriate behaviors by observing and copying models – adults and older children. Family members and friends reinforce behaviors that are gender-appropriate and "punish" those that are not. These reinforcements and punishments may be intentional or not.
The next theory, cognitive developmental theory, states that a child’s understanding of gender develops in time with his or her intellectual abilities. For example, very young children (younger than 4 years old, approximately) may understand the concept of gender, but until their cognitive abilities are advanced enough to understand permanence, they may not grasp that gender is a stable characteristic. A young boy who has not developed gender stability might therefore believe that he can grow up to be a woman. Whereas social learning theory suggests that children are learning continuously, cognitive developmental theory suggests that children pass through stages that are somewhat age-dependent.
The third theory, gender schema theory, might be best described as an attempt to combine the best of social learning theory and cognitive developmental theory. According to gender schema theorists, the cognitive ability to form categories (schemes) is necessary for children to understand gender. Gender schemes develop from information within the environment. As children take in messages about gender from friends, family, and society, they must continually reevaluate their already existing gender schema, and they must integrate new information about gender roles into their previous understandings of gender. Gender schemes are thought to influence the way that individuals behave, understand and remember things, and solve problems.
So, which theory is right? Careful research on gender differences has provided support for all of the above theories. As a result, most psychologists believe that gender is determined by a combination of biology and environment. However, both biological and environmental factors are likely to change. Although we might assume that biological features are fixed, in fact they are not. Brain organization, hormone levels, and other bodily features can change in response to environmental cues or factors. Thus, it may be most accurate to say that the relationship between biology, environment, and gender is a dynamic one that allows for experimentation and change as people go through life.
Source: www.loveandhealth.info This article appears in the following topics:
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